The First Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the Presidential Seat Essay Example for Free

The prototypical Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the electric chairial Seat EssayTwo chairwomans took up the Presidential seat under the period of an sparing recession in the unify States. These two are Former President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (widely known as FDR) and President Barrack Obama, the newly elected President in last years elections. Both view as entered the presidential scene in a time of great economic crisis in FDRs time was the great(p) Depression and in Obamas, a mirror or reoccurrence of the Great Depression.The former successfully dealt with the Great Depression, rescuing the country from economic collapse and impending civil unrestif the crisis would continue. The latter is expected by the prevalent to deliver the same performance under the same economic situation, hoping that everything would be fine in the pixilatedst possible future. Comparing the two presidents rootage hundred long time in the presidential seat, they exert the aura of hope as seen by the public eye when they showtime took up the presidential seat, to deliver the country from a worsening economic meltdown.In his first few days of office, President Franklin D. Roosevelt immediately aimed for rescuing the United States parsimony from the Great Depressiona massive economic recession. It was a take exception for the President-elect to save the country from such a sinkhole but he already laid kayoed throws on how he would be able to earn this primary goal.The first thing that he aimed for was to close all the banks in the country, declaring a bank holiday. This was done in order for the government and these bankers to value the situation and plan out a strategy in order to regain control of the deteriorating economy.The hint Banking Bill was implemented in order to reorganize banks in the country, and later to reopen these under a new structure, which proved to be a great move by the president. After his terms in the office, he was regarded as a mod el for succeeding presidents to follow as he was able to achieve so m any(prenominal) great things in the face of crisisfrom the Great Depression to the Second World War. During his first hundred days, he was able to stabilize the American economy, avoiding its further downfall. Presidents that followed tried to recreate FDRs term.The new-fashioned president-elect Barrack Obama has probably felt the same pressure as what FDR felt during his first hundred days in the office, entering the scene upon which the country is suffering a similar economic downturn Dj vu as many economists and historians would believe. However, the question still remains would he be able to move in off the same stunts as that of the late FDR? Somehow, President Obama is showing some signs of promise in his first few days in the office.He initially concentrated with the stabilizing the countrys economy but later on concentrated on establishing better relationships with opposite countriessome of which are en emies of the United States. Even so, it still did not replicate the great achievement of FDR in his first few days in office saving the economy from a deep sinkhole. However, it could also be assumed that Obamas version of the rescue is still on the planning stages as the administration could not afford any mistakes in conducting this economic rescue plan. Also, the people have not given up hope on President Obama to deliver them from this economic tragedy in the United States.There is not much unlikeness between the two except for the fact that FDR has successfully stabilized the economy to a more controllable level in his first hundred days in the office. He exercised an immediate relief plan for the United States government and its people, in order to save them from the spites of the Great Depression. President Obama aims to replicate this achievement as the country is currently facing the same situation. At the same time, he aimed to establish better relationships with other n ations, control overseas matters, and turn the government into a transparent entity.These two presidents have shared a similar fate when they entered the presidency. They were expected by the public to relieve the country from further economic downfall, as these people considered them as a ray of hope for a better America in the future.ReferencesKangas, S. (1997). The First 100 Days. The Great Depression Its Causes and Cure. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http//www.huppi.com/kangaroo/First100days.htmSmith, J. E. (2009, January 16). How F.D.R. Made the Presidency Matter. 100 Days Starting the Job, From F.D.R. to Obama. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http//100days.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/how-fdr-made-the-presidency-matter/Talev, M. (2009, April 26). Obamas first 100 days in office havent been quite. McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http//news.yahoo.com/s/mcclatchy/20090426/pl_mcclatchy/3217776

Juvenile delinquent Essay Example for Free

Juvenile delinquent EssayIn todays society more and more juvenile delinquents ar being charged as adults in the court systems. The youth ar being condemned by a society that allows fear to mark its decisions. In the film Juvies narrated by actor Mark Wahlberg, a former juvenile offender, the lives of a group of young kids who be sendenced for many social classs or life are told. Throughout the film the group explains why they did what they did and how they wished they could have d wiz it differently. One of the kids, a fourteen year old by the name of Anait, was sentenced for seven years. She had driven a group of boys to a high instill where they then fought and killed a nonher boy. Anait was charged with accessory to murder because she was the one that was driving the car. Another kid by the name of Duc was sentenced for 35 years, at the age of 16. He had no prior record, wasnt a rabble member but he was affiliated with a gang. He had driven a car that took government agency in a shooting, and even though no one was injured he was still open up guilty.I experience, as do many others, that our court system has become much too unsmooth when it comes to punishing the youth. There is a difference when being tough on crime and giving kids punishments that do not fit the crime. More and more of todays youth are being sent to adult prisons where they enkindlenot be protected. In a juvenile prison, kids are given second chances. There they run across to right their ways and are sent back out in society where hopefully they entrust become responsible adults. In adult prisons however, its survival of the fittest. There is no protection for those kids and no one to guide them on the right path. Statistics show that kids sentenced to adult prisons are more likely to end up back behind bars within five years of being released or committing suicide. The media plays a man-sized part in condemning these children.The media has demonized them and the crime s that they commit. Court systems have started to charge more for what could have happened rather than what did happen. Duc is an manakin of this. He was charged for a crime that wasnt committed but could have been. Children should not be tried as adults because they cannot think as adults do. Science shows that a persons brain is not fully developed until their early twenties. The cortex is still developing and this is the part of the brain that controls emotions and impulse. This is why children are more likely to appropriate hotheaded more easily than if they were adults. If a child is not taught how to control his/her emotions than when they become adults these emotions will become harder to manage. Charging young children as adults does more harm than good. Some people feel that if you are going to commit crimes of an adult than you should be charged as an adult.However, a child does not think like an adult nor do they know how to relieve their emotions is a healthy non destr uctive way. bulk like Gregory Boyle, Geoffrey Canada, and Aaron Kipnis want to help these kids rather than convict them for the rest of their lives. Children acquire guidance from responsible adults, in particular men. Many boys end up in prison because they never had a dependable male map model in their lives. They dont feel wanted or accepted, so they find it by other means. They look to gangs to feel like they belong some(prenominal)where. There are other approaches that do not involve scaring kids with the threat of prison or punishing them for years.One of these approaches is restorative justice. Offenders are forced to organize responsibility for what they have done. Not only do they have to confront their issues but they also get help. Another approach is guiding boys on the pathway to becoming a man. These are just some ways in which to save these boys from destroying their lives. There are so many children, both boys and girls that need help. They need friends, family , love, hope, and trust. They need someone that they can look up to and have faith in. Someone who they know wint hurt them or throw them to the side when they make mistakes. With both discipline and direction, children from bad backgrounds can grow up and live crime free lives.

Commercial company Essay Example for Free

Commercial company EssaySelect a major industrial or commercialised company based in the fall in States and listed on one of the major stock exchanges in the United States. Each student should select a different company. Avoid selecting an insurance company or a bank, because the mo solveary ratios for these financial businesses are different. Write a seven-to-eight-page double-spaced paper answering and demonstrating with calculations and financial entropy the following questions.1. What is the name of the company? What is the constancy sector?Starbucks Corporation is in the Food and Beverage industry2. What are the operate risks of the company?Economic conditions in the US and certain international grocerys could adversely take Starbucks business and financial results. as a retailer Starbucks is dependent upon the customers discretionary spending. Customers may have less money for discretionary purchases as a result of job passagees, foreclosures, bankruptcies, increase d terminate and energy costs, higher interest rates and taxes. Decreases in customer traffic will negatively touch on financial performance. Starbucks may not be successful in implementing important strategic initiatives or effectively managing growth, which may have an adverse impact on our business and financial results. there is no self-assertion that Starbucks will be able to implement strategic initiatives and achieve the results that are within managements expectations.These initiatives are designed to create growth, improve operations and drive long-term shareholder value. Starbucks face importunate competition in each of our channels and markets, which could lead to reduced profitability. Starbucks is highly dependent on the financial performance of the Americas operating segment the Americas operating segment contributes 74% of the total net revenues in fiscal 2013. Starbucks is relying on the success in the European/ Middle East, China/Asia Pacific operating segment s to achieve overall growth targets. Other international operations are also subject to surplus inherent risk when conducting business abroad. Of which, includeForex rate fluctuations.Changes or uncertainties in economic, legal, regulatory, social and political conditions in international markets. Restrictive actions of foreign or US governments affecting trade.Enforceability of intellectual and contract rights.Local laws happy chance in energy supplies.Delays in store opening beyond the control of management.Increases in the cost of high-quality Arabica chocolate beans or separate commodities. Disruption in the supply chain, which will impact the ability to deliver Starbucks products. The loss if key personnel or difficulties in recruiting and retaining qualified personnel Adverse public or medical examination opinions about the health effects of consuming Starbuckss products, as well as reports of incidents involving food-borne illnesses, food fiddle or food contamination. St arbucks relies heavily on information technology in operations, and any material failure, inadequacy, open frame or security failure of that technology could harm Starbucks ability to effectively operate the business. Failure to admit with local laws and regulations.3. What is the financial risk of the company (the debt to total hoodlumitalization ratio)?Market Cap 56.69 BNDebt 2.05BNDebt/total cap ratio = 0.036(yahoo.com, 2014)4. Does the company have any like stock? The company does not have preferred stock. 5. What is the slap-up structure of the company short-term portion of long-term debt, long-term debt, preferred stock (if any), and market value of common stock issued and outstanding? short-term portion of long-term debt357.7 jillionLong-term debt1,299 MillionPreferred Stock0Market value of common stock56.69 Billion6. What is the companys current actual beta? 0.957. What would the beta of this company be if it had no long-term debt in its capital structure? Unlevered Be ta using Hamada equation = Beta /1+(1-T) x (D/E) Beta 0.95Marginal Tax Rate, T 32.8%D/E 0.036Unlevered Beta = 0.96 / 1+(1 -0.328)*0.036 =0.9378. What is the companys current marginal tax rate?Income taxes for the fiscal year ended 2012 resulted in an effective tax rate of 32.8% compared to 31.1% for fiscal year 2011. (Starbucks Coffee Company, 2013)9. What is the outlay earnings multiple of the company?Price to earnings ration. This ratio is used in conjunction with other metrics to give analyst and investors are quick initial impression of whether a company would spend a penny a good investment. (investopedia, 2014) Starbucks P/E ratio is 385.0510. How has the companys stock been performing in the last 5 years? Starbucks share price 282.32% in the last 5 yrs.11. Would you invest in this company? Why or why not?I would invest in Starbucks. SBUX has the highest P/E ratio among its competitors. Their cost of debt is low compared to their cost of equity. That is why they are relying on debt for their expansion. Their dividends per share have been change magnitude yearly. 18. The last page of your paper should be a Bibliography of the sources you used to prepare this paper.Bibliographyinvestopedia. (2011, feb). Cost of Equity. (investopedia) Retrieved septmeber 2014, from Investopedia www.investopedia.com/terms/c/costofeqquity.asp investopedia. (2014). Definition of Prince Multiple. Retrieved from www.investopedia.com www.investopedia.com/terms/p/princemultiles.asp Starbucks Coffee Company. (2013). Fiscal 2013 Annual Report. Investor Relations. Seattle Starbucks Coffee Company. yahoo.com. (2014, september). chawbacon Finance. (Yahoo.com, Producer) Retrieved september 2014, from Yahoo finance finance.yahoo.com/q/ks?s=SBUX+Key+Statistics

Examples of Key Literary Terms Essay Example for Free

Examples of Key Literary monetary value EssayFarce A comedy a short play, in which both subtle irritation and hilarity are developed through improbable situations, exaggeration and (often) ridiculous antics.The model in our textual matter was Im going A comedy in one act, there was never a doubt that Henri was going to the races from the very start, no matter what Jeanne (Henris wife) had to say. The comedy behind this was Henri and Jeanne arguing spine and forth about Henri going to the races without Jeanne, then a sudden twist when Jeanne fin all in ally decided that she would go visit her friend (Juliette) and Henri could go to the race. Well, then Henri didnt want Jeanne to do that so he would non leave until Jeanne told him she would stay home alone. This demonstrated (Farce) beca accustom the author used humor and ridiculous antics passim his play. imaging The human power that shapes artistic verbiage it enables a writers work to become an expression of meaning in our world, and allows readers to engage in identifying with what the writers work has to say about things that matter.The example given in our text for Imagination was The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. Walter had a very vivid imagination, throughout his story he was a commander in an 8 engine Navy hydroplane, a noteworthy surgeon helping a friend of President Roosevelt, an accused witness in a court room trial, a captain in a war plane and finally finds himself fearlessly confront a firing squad all while driving his wife to the city and waiting for her to reserve her hair do. This story demonstrated a lot of artistic expression, and you could almost get lost in what was actually real and what was imagined.Image A distinct representation of something that can be experienced and understood through the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste), or the representation of an idea. Writers use precise language in developing images, or imagery, in literature.The example given fo r Image in our text was Dogs Death. The family cad was sick and no one noticed until it was too late as the dog died on the way to the vet. Upon the family returning home they notice diarrhea across the kitchen floor where the dog had tried to use the paper they had lay on the floor for it. This demonstrated (image) through the sense of sight, even though the dog had died, what it had left behind was a very sad reminder of it.Song A lyrical melodious expression, a source of emotional outlet common in ancient communities and still influential in contemporary culture.The example given for (song) in our text was Dream Boogie. Basically it is a song, songs and music are expressions of what people are feeling and since we are all human we often have many of the corresponding feelings as others. My son is a song writer and he mostly writes depressing love songs because of all the girls that have done him wrong. I can relate to his music because of all the men that have done me wrong.Cl ugston, R. W. (2010). Journey into literature. San Diego, CA Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

Assessing Infants and Toddlers Essay Example for Free

Assessing Infants and Toddlers EssayAssessing infants and toddlers is commonly apply to rule if squirtren are meeting their developmental milest peerlesss or if they are showing each signs of developmental delays or disabilities. Many pillow slips of standardized ladders are available for practise with infants and young minorren all are psychological tests, whether they measure abilities, achievements, aptitudes, interests, attitudes, values, or personality characteristics (Wortham, How Standardized scrutiny Are Used with Infants and boylike Children, 2012). There are many types of appraisements and the gravestone is apply the proper one to answer the questions you need, mind that involves observation of the child, interviews with parents and care selectrs, developmental and social history, and interaction with the child development game-like materials, toys, questionnaires, and tasks (Logsdon, 2012). Teachers should be request what methods should be used, which one should a instructor select from the children they are teaching, and how leave alone the instruction be geted? In this paper I lead explore these questions and how that effects the ever fast changing pace of beforehand(predicate) childhood education.A developmental mind is a process designed to deepen understanding of a childs competencies and resources, and of the caregiving and learning environss most likely to help a child make fullest use of his or her developmental capability, according to New Visions (Tips for Surviving Child Development Assessment, 2012). As a instructor you will pass why you should make in assessment. For some architectural plans it is part of their policies and procedures, for some it is state mandated, and for others it may be federally mandated. For some teachers the choice is theirs and they choose to for the best interest of the child. Through assessment the teacher nonify determine where the child is in development, show progress thr ough ongoing assessment and necessitate training to plow with the childs parents.The master(prenominal) reason for assessment is to pinpoint any disabilities or developmental delays, to assess the childs school readiness, to assist the teacher in planning their curriculum and lesson plans program, to provide feedback to parents and world able to show the effectiveness of the program. The first thing is choose the type of assessment that is get hold of for the children that you engage with daily. There are two types of assessments formal and informal assessments. With formal assessments the teacher is comparing the child against developmental norms or to other children. Informal assessments are observations that tail assembly be obtained through observation in a methodical way and is usually not compared to others. The studyity of standardized tests that are in use forthwith are designed to be administered and see by trained professionals.Most programs use a combine of as sessments when gathering information about the children they take on with each day. The benefit of standardized tests is that the results can be compared to some other child or children finding the common factors of developmental norms. A norm is an average result in a group of sample children within that age group or classroom. The second advantage is can be the ability to predict rigorousness of the tests. Children whom do intimately on these assessments tend to do well in assessments as the move into the school readiness in Kindergarten. A common test used for preschoolers include the Battelle (Logsdon, 2012).There are disadvantages when using standardized test as well and one of the major ones is how the data will be interpreted that is obtained. The results from the teachers and administrators must be considered and compared to similar children in similar circumstances. The proportion is not easy to achieve, for example the cultural bias of early developmental tests. Also the predictive validity of standardized tests can be a disadvantage for their ability to forecast the future achievement in kindergarten. There are other formal test that are being explored that can measure what is developmentally appropriate within their focus and address.Standardized tests have information regarding their validity and reliability that can give the teachers a way to evaluate if the test is appropriate and if it is being used for its intended use. The reliability information should be able to produce the same result when measuring the same thing with different groups of children. This will help the teacher to be able to determine information that will be obtained. It should be considered when using formal test that they should be used with trained professionals, although they are available for purchase openly they should not be used without training and experience. When using formal test they should be given in a controlled environment for the results to be valid . Even when the test are given properly the results can be interpreted inconsistently and the norms not valid.For example the test could be for both boys and girls but could end up being used with a majority of one or the other or compared to just one variable quantity due to the majority of whom is taking the tests. If that was confusing to you as it was to me and so can you imagine the results you will get. When using informal methods to assess children the test as to a greater extent teacher derived and the tools used are usually checklist, employment and interaction and open-ended questions. Many teachers already use anecdotal records, a strategy that records actions of the children, in which laconic episodes of a childs way are recorded and kept for comparing change in behavior over time, in the childs portfolio and used when meeting with parents for a conference. One of the main reasons for this method is ease of use. Anecdotes can be recorded in virtually any environment at any time throughout the day with limited materials needed.Other informal methods used in classrooms right away are time sample, checklists, rating scales, interviews, and videotape or audiotape recordings. The teacher should include the following five key things when using anecdotes frequency of the behavior, duration of the behavior, notes describing when and where the observation took place, and the date and time. Another form is the childs portfolio which is any variety of works panorama to be representative of the individual. With young children, this usually includes drawings and writings, photographs and stories dictated to an adult. A portfolio can also include information about the child contributed by teachers, and other professionals. A portfolio can be used as a springboard for excogitateion with children themselves, parents, or other professionals. Discussions with children around a portfolio could reflect on what the child drew (tell me much about,). With parent s and professionals the portfolio offers a variety of information about the child, in which they can use as a springboard for discussion at parent conferences.The problem with this type of assessment it can leave the parents confused with the information that comes from it and how it related to their child. When a teacher is choosing which method to use they have to consider what purpose will it serve? The teacher should ask themselves why is this information needed, what is the purpose, and what information will be helpful for the teacher, child and parent, when and how will this information be obtained and how am I as the teacher going to ensure that the information gather is accurate and valid? Also, if this method is choose is it appropriate for the children I work with? Two things that I feel the teacher should ask themselves are is this age and developmentally appropriate for the children I work with and is relevant to the background and daily circumstances of the child that I work with? When considering the choices you must also consider am I as the teacher able to administer this test properly.When considering this I must consider the how the test will observe a child and how will this be done without pre-formed ideas about outcome. When we are able to be objective then the teacher reports only the facts, and then interpret those facts by what is observed, rather than feelings or attitudes about the child. In todays society more and more teachers are moving away from traditional methods of assessments and moving towards methods that are relying instead on techniques thought to be more holistic and developmentally appropriate. This could include mod approaches that observe more on behavior that happens in natural settings and assessments that reflect the complete set of circumstances surrounding the child. While conducting an assessment the teacher should make e real effort to use the information in ways that are respectful of the child.In any case the teacher must remember to pay attention to issues such as combine and always remaining confidential. Confidentiality means that it will only be discussed in professional settings, and the information will conceal identities and results are revealed only to the intended audience. Consent means that the teacher obtained the permission from the parent to observe, evaluate and assessed a child. A lot of times parents give such consent at the time of the program enrollment if they sign a form indicating that they realize such activities will be occurring. Otherwise, you should always obtain permission prior to engaging in ongoing assessment projects, even if informal measures are being used. One practice to avoid is the temptation to label children based on assessment results, such as this child is special or this child is challenged.Children placed in these categories very early on have difficulty overcoming them later. In the 21st century, assessment practices are likely to become mo re holistic and innovative in their approach. For example, we are beginning to hear more of the term authentic assessment. Authentic assessments are when the environment is taken into account surrounding the evaluation of individual children. Another term being used more today is performance-based assessment. Performance-based assessment is when the teacher is focusing on the daily activities and skills already being performed in the classroom setting. Family involvement in assessment, such as parent reports and observations or even them being present, has not been rattling considered in mainstream early childhood settings. These strategies will gain popularity in the coming years.Although assessment holds great potential to help caregivers understand the children they care for, it can be challenging to assess infants and toddlers, especially if one views assessment as a one-on-one testing interaction (Ditchtelmiller, 2012). In the past assessments have been more of what the child cannot do and today they are becoming more of what the child can do now and has accomplished. This approach to assessment will benefit the child as an individual and abilities rather than disabilities. As a teacher, such approaches will help us maintain positive attitudes concerning the child development.Besides identifying and correcting developmental problems, assessment of very young children is conducted for other purposes. One purpose is research. Researchers study young children to better understand their behavior or to measure the appropriateness of the experiences that are provided for them (Wortham, Assesment in Early puerility Education (6th Edition), 2012). Teachers and child-care providers want children to feel a sense of accomplishment while in their care. The more a child-care provider knows about a childs academic, social, and delirious development, the more theyre able to meet the childs needs.Teachers and child care providers may use this resource for developing st rategies to row a childs progress (Checking Childrens Progress, 2012). We know that rather the assessment is formal or informal early childhood professionals are going to perform them. Through assessment we can screen for disabilities, assess kindergarten readiness, help the teacher developing curriculum and lesson plans, evaluate the effectiveness of a program, and aide the teachers when conferencing with the parents. Both parents and teachers want to know that their child is obtaining goals, showing progress and gaining new skills and what other way to know this other than assessment.ReferencesChecking Childrens Progress. (2012, April 25). Retrieved September 26, 2012, from Head live on ECLKC eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teachingllecd/assessment/ongoing%20assessment/edudev_art_00409_060906.html Tips for Surviving Child Development Assessment. (2012). Retrieved September 26, 2012, from Zero to Three www.zerotothree.org/child-development/mental-health-screening- assessm ent/tips-for-surviving-child-development-assessment.html Ditchtelmiller, M. L. (2012). One Programs Experience. Retrieved September 27, 2012, from Infant/Toddler Assessment www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200401/ditchtel.pdf Logsdon, A. (2012). Infant and Toddler Development Tests education Disabilities. Retrieved September 26, 2012, from Testing for Infant and Toddler Development http//learningdisabilities.acout.com/od/intelligencetests/p/battelledevelop.html Wortham, S. (2012). Assesment in Early Childhood Education (6th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Pearson.Wortham, S. (2012). How Standardized Test Are Used with Infants and Young Children. Retrieved September 27, 2012, from Education.comhttp//www.education.com/prints/standardized-tests-infants-children/

Geotechnical Engineering And Physical Properties Engineering Essay

Geotechnical directing And Physical Properties Engineering EssayBurj Al Arab is the worlds tallest iconic and most lordly hotel. This edifice has received numerous recognitions around the world, and is mainly known by its design which resembles the shape of a sail boats mast.This 321 meter high make uping was built on a man-made island however 280 meters from the bound, big(p) all visitors a 360o view of the bay. Construction began in 1993. Engineers created a surface with a layer of rocks, which is circled with a honey-comb pattern which protects the surface and tooshie from erosion. The building contains more than 70000 m2 of cover and 9000 tons of steel. It took b arly two years to construct the building and three years to construct the unveiling on edge anchor, making this a geotechnical wonder.8IntroductionGeotechnical Engineering entails to obtain information of the physical properties of the territory and rock on a proposed site known as site exploration. This in formation combined with the mechanics of bemire digest assess the risks presented by the site conditions that must be concluded in the design process of foundations, earthworks and retaining walls.Burj Al Arab has one of the rarest and most interesting foundations, earthworks and retaining wall phenomenas. This include building an island 280 meter off coast as a foundation for this 321 meter high sea shore wonder.1 Through aside this report we will tactile sensation at which demesnes are found in Dubai, as come up as the properties thereof including the construction of this hotel foundation.Constructing the Burj Al Arab hotelThe design of the Burj Al Arab has been constructed with a specific geometry which supports the sail boat like design by protect the building from changing move loads. The outermost wall of the building has been constructed by the use of PTFE coated fiberglass which contains air gaps at regular intervals. This double curve membrane design is able to adj udge wind squelchs easily.3Additional cables charter been provided onto the structure to prevent any deflection in fabrics. On the full big top of the building expansion joints were provided on the right side of the building to ensure the building shadower withstand the wind load pressures as well as the horizontal stresses that may occur during construction and operation. The material that was used for this sail boat like structure is not only robust save it excessively protects the buildings interior from the sun by using light defusion.3After seventy thou common sense cubic meters of concrete and ninety thousand tons of steel, this great engineering wonder is noted as the heart of Dubai. This striking feature of the Burj Al Arabhotel, with its two hundred and two rooms, is rigid 280 meter off shore from the coast of Dubai and recognised as the best in the world. 2Concept Architect Tom Willis-WrightimagesCAHJ41BO.jpgConstruction Engineer WS Atkins and Partners Overseas M ultidisciplinary Consultancy.Interior designers Khuan Chew, Design Principal of KCA International (London).Location Jumeirah B individually Road, Jumeirah, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.Date 1994-1999 look PostmodernType/Structure Luxury 7 stars*rating hotel/resortSize 321m x 280m (1,053 ft) strength steel, glass, cement, steel cables, pilesFrom Antonino Terranova. The Great Skyscrapers of the World. Special gatefold edition, page 269-279.Figure 1 Burj Al Arab hotelDubais defect ProfileThe topography of Dubai (which lies within the Arabian Desert) is different from the southern portion of the UAE. Its landscape consists of sandy desert patterns consisting in general out of crushed shell and coral and is clean and white, whereas gravel dominates in the southern regions of the province. 2 When smell at the farming properties of Dubai, its weak and will most probably move outwards in the fibre of any construction on it. See figure 1 Dubai fault map. 3Studies as well render that Dubais possibility of a tsunami is minimal, due to the Persian Gulf irrigate that is not deep enough to evocation a tsunami. therefore Dubai is classified as a stable zone, whereas the nearest seismic fault overseas telegram is 120 km from the UAE, making it unlikely for Dubai to be hit by a seismic impact.2http//www.gis information.net/ minutes/mapmiddleeast/2006/natural%20resource%20management/images/mme06138_3.jpgFigure 2 Dubai primer coat map. human foot jobsThe moment when Dubai laid focus on the development of this world wonder, they knew it would be an engineering challenge. Many elements must be taken in consideration in geotechnical engineering to build the worlds 15th tallest building on seabed, where its properties are known as a folding(prenominal) skank due to a lack of silt and clay.The collapse phenomenon give the gate be defined as a soil which can withstand somewhat large stresses, with little stoppage at clinical depression in situ moisture content whic h will show signs of a decrease in volume and associated stop with no append of load if the moisture content rises. Therefore the change in volume goes return in hand with the change in the soil structure.It is thus evident that a number of conditions choose to be met before collapsing begins 6The soil must have a collapsible fabric in its structure. This is where the specified soil has a high vacant ratio and yet has relatively high fleece strength at low moisture content due to a coating (Colloidal) around each grain.Partial saturation is essential. This is where collapse settlement will not occur in soils which are located under the water table.Increase of moisture content. This could be seen as the cause for the collapse to take place. With the increase of moisture the colloidal coating loses its strength and thus forces the grains to a denser state with reduction in void ratio.Subjected to an imposed load greater than their overburden pressure before collapse can take plac e. This is only applied to certain collapsible soils.The typical problem associated with a collapsible soil to a building is that although it is dependent on the increase of the moisture content, collapse can take place years after construction has taken place. 6 Large magnitude settlements can occur beneath lightly oppressed structures as well as collapse settlement is regularly localised due to defects in foundation, waste pipe leakage and where ponding occur during rainfall.The engineering properties which most proceed the cost of a construction are alter compressibility. Both can be enhanced by reducing the voids in the soil. Water must be displaced from the saturated soils in army to centre the void volume. This can take months if the permeability of the type of soil present is low.The following engineering solutions to the mitigation of the collapse problem are listed below 6 evasion by stopping the triggering mechanism (increase in moisture). This can be made possible b y ensuring that water does not penetrate the collapsing soil horizons.Design for collapse. This could be possible in certain scenarios to design a structure which could withstand the predicted collapse settlement.Chemical stabilisation. This is to make use of a stabilising agent which could reduce the settlement.Piled or pier foundation. This is used only when the soil comes from a transported origin which means that the bedrock is cover with a shallow layer, making it possible to rather build on piers or piles.Removal and compaction. This could be do by removing the collapsible soil to a certain depth and replace it through compacting the remote soil in layers.In situ densification by surface rolling. Surface rolling can be done by making use of an impact or vibrating roller for compaction.Soil PropertiesBeach sand is one of many soils that have a collapsible grain structure, where its surface contains large quantities of calcium change which in more defined terms are remains of microscopic plants and animals that thrive on nutrients in the water surface, where it ultimately settles to the base of operations.The strength and the behaviour of this soil are thus dependent on the calcareous particles which it contains. These grain particles is well rounded due to it being rotated and shaped by the waves and is poorly evaluate (i.e. having a narrow particle distribution). This contributes to the high void ratio, meaning that the soil is very loose and can be seen as not a good bonding material. 6 defer 1 Transported soil and possible engineering problem.Soil TypeTransported Soil TypeAgency of transportationSourceProblem to anticipateBeach SandLittoral depositWavesMixedCollapsible grain structureTests to be performed on beach sandA large amount of data can be generated from soil, but it can all be wasted if the most measurable step of sampling is not carried out properly. Thus, in order for an analysis to be of significance to a proposed project, it should represent the bulk material of the site. Additionally, soil samples must be taken in abundance and at random, to ensure that the overall characteristics of the soil are effectively represented. See table 2 for properties beach sand.The following studys were used in classifying beach sand (collapsing soil structure)3Particle size distribution. This test is performed to measure the particle size distribution of the soil sample by passing it through a set of sieves. This is in order to produce a grading curve for the soil, which is used to find out its classification. The solid particles in a soil can have different shapes and sizes, and these characteristics thus have a significant effect on its engineering behavior. By making use of this test one can clearly note whether the soil is well or poorly graded. As for beach sand it is known to be a collapsible soil due to it having a poorly graded grain structure and affected by an increase in moisture.Atterburg limits. This test makes us e of three separate tests namely Liquid limit test, Plastic limit test and shrinkage limit test. This test is used to chequer a relationship between the soils consistency and its moisture content. If the soil has low moisture content, it would aim to break before deformation takes place, whereas if the moisture content is too high, the soil will deform more easily. This test is of great importance due to it having an impact on settlement underneath a proposed structure. The test can be used to distinguish between the presence of silts and clays. This is important as silt has much less coherence than clay.Dry parsimony. This can easily be rigid in a laboratory by measuring its physical dimensions and by weighing them. The dry density of a collapsible soil lies between 900-1600 kg/m3.Oedometer test. When a structure is build on a soil it produces settlement due to compression within the soil profile, which depends on the soils properties such as self-weight and also the type of load the soil is experiencing. This test makes use of a series of loads in order to measure the corresponding settlement of the soil. By knowing the soils stress and strain properties will allow the divination in settlement and swelling of the soil.Collapse Potential test. This test is used to determine the collapse parameters in order to design accordingly. The CP (Collapse Parameters) is given in percentage, to determine the level of severity.Triaxial test. This test is similar to the unconfined compression test, except that the sample is surrounded by a waterproof membrane and installed in a pressure chamber (cell). This test is thus performed to estimate the stress and strain parameters of the specific soil.Permeability. This test is used to determine the ease of which water can flow through a soil profile, which is important for geotechnical engineers in projects.Table 2 Soil properties of silt sand.9Soil PropertiesBeach SandSpecific Gravity2.64-2.66Bulk concentration (Mg/ M3 )1.82-2.15Dry Density (Mg/ m3)1.45-1.95Void ratio0.35-0.85Liquid limit (%)24-35Plastic limit (%)14-25Effective cohesion (kPa)75Angle of friction (deg)32-36Construction of Burj Al Arab FoundationConstructing a building on sea, an schmalzy island is needed to design and build the foundations. As many elements need to be taken into account to build an off shore structure, it is therefore important to ensure the protection of the foundation. This can only be done by evaluating all apposed loads to a structure. Seafloor stability regards to the bearing capacity and the sliding resistance thereof must be evaluated for static and combined static, operational and environmental (Like horizontal, vertical loading and overturning moments of the environment which have a return period of up to 15 seconds) loads. Structures with more or less a one hundred fifty meter depth could experience horizontal loads of 15-35% of the vertical loading, whereas the overturning moment can be ranging from vi tamin C to 500 million kN/m.8 The change in vertical load during a storm can veer from 10 40 % of the static vertical load. This means that the foundation needs to be strong to be able to obtain these loadings. Luckily these loadings were much less when Burj Al Arab was constructed, due to it only being 7 meters in depth.8IslandConstruction1.jpgFigure 3 Piling of the Burj Al Arab hotelThe first step in constructing the island was to place 230 concrete piles (see Figure 3), each one 40 meter in length, which was drilled into the sea bed. The foundation is therefore held in place by the friction of the sand and silts along the length of the piles, rather than the courtly bedrock. The surface was then made by using large rocks that were put together in a specific concrete pattern (honey-comb pattern) which serves as a shield to minimise erosion to the foundation.Making the chopine on which the building would be constructed, tube files and sheet files were drilled deep into the sea t o support sundry(a) boundary rocks. Once this was completed the sea water was displaced to fill the inside with concrete slabs as seen on table 3. IslandConstruction2.jpgThe structure was then surrounded with a temporary concrete structure to protect the island and the understructure of the structure, which was filled with a concrete plug slab. Lastly the concrete walls was made where the main basement floor of the building was build (See Figure 4).3Figure 4 Burj Al Arab Excavated BasementTable 3 Foundation of the Burj Al ArabConclusionThe Burj Al Arab being a geotechnical wonder is due to its size as well as its ability to withstand the environment and the impacts thereof. This building is only carried by a sandy soil which contains broken shells. Its ability under shear strength and pressure is very low, especially since it is located 280 meters of shore. Thus the building stands only on piles which are held into place by just the friction between the soil and the piles, making this project one of the most remarkable foundation types in history. The design of this foundation on this type of soil is breaking barriers in the building industry, making Dubai a leading country in development.Due to South Africa not being a first world country it is unimaginable for us to be examined to a city which encourages ultimate engineering in structural, hydraulic and geotechnical engineering. Therefore we cannot compare the infrastructures of their country with ours. South Africa could always strive to be a first world country by focusing on infrastructure as well as the inequality of societies. This would encourage tourism and affect the economy positively.

Characteristics of problems

signs of conundrumsCharacteristics of ProblemsDetermining the fibre of business to be netd is pickyly difficult. From the scientific point of view it has not been treated sufficiently yet. It is, neverthe slight, of thorough importance beca delegate on it covers the whole field of creativity, and the line solver(s) heuristic behavior is contingent on the type of job. What is a bother? This question was asked and answered by Karl Duncker (1945). Duncker, who was a Gestalt psychologist, define a line in these words A problem arises when a living organism has a intention besides does not know how this goal is to be reached. This definition is, no doubt, actually useful, because creativity confinements and activities always strive to address a problem. Yet, Dunckers definition and formulation poses these caveats It is necessary to distinguish amid a task and a problem. It is the subjects level of domain knowledge, including his capacity to find pertinent knowledge, if necessary, that demonstrates the difference amongst the deuce. A task set by a detective or experimenter may be a problem to certain subjects and no problem to others. A problem may vanish or be resolved if the subject changes his goal. A problem does not personify de facto, unless the subject observes discrepancies in the midst of his current situation and the goals he pursues.Reitman (1965) proposed that problems be viewed as three-component entities, having an sign state, a terminal (goal) state, and a set of cognitive operationes that facilitate reaching the goal, starting from the initial state. Minski (1961) proposed a distinction in the midst of two types of problems, those that consort to the nature of the conditions of acceptability of solutions are either salubrious defined or ill-defined. A problem satisfying Reitmans conditions (Reitman, 1965) is a so-called healthful-defined problem it bum be solved by applying a systematic procedure that makes it pos sible to decide whether a proposed solution is correct or not. It means that it is all decidable all pertinent solutions can be evaluated strictly utilise one binary variable powerful or wrong. The solution can thus be described as an all-or-nothing phenomenon. There are no intermediate solutions between the functional and non-functional ones. In general terms, either tests for which in that respect exists a rigorous rule of comparison between what is proposed and what is containd is a well-defined problem.Examples of well-defined problems are board games, problems in mathematics, or problems in logic. They may be very difficult to resolve, nevertheless. Taking mans limited resources, psychologists face the task of explaining how homosexual beings manage to solve problems in chess, mathematics or geometry within reasonable time. Ill-defined problems are those that are not well-defined. They result in a multitude of solutions that cannot be variantified by using a binary tr uth-value, but by using a relative qualitative scale. The response to a unavoidableness thus deed overs grades, the determination of which is left to the referees. The majority of problems occurring in everyday life are ill-defined problems the onward motion on an object or an apparatus, a raw use of what already is known, the search for a gross sales idea or a foodstuffing idea, and so onIll-defined problems arise when approximately(prenominal) components of the problems statement, in the esthesis of Reitman, are unspecified, or are vague or fuzzy. The definedness of problems varies in degree (Reitman, 1965, Ch. 5). For instance, contend a weensy flower and bake bread for these throng, which is vague in terms of the quantity of flower and the heel of people, but specifies clearly the method bake. Another statement may run like this Let us kill the current economic crisis. This statement does not specify the method what should be done to overcome the crisis? Do not ju st hang around, maximize something is an exhortation taken from a cartoon, in which both the initial state, the method and the goal are shrouded in a mental fog. Ill-defined problems are more parkland than are well-defined problems, but it is all the more difficult to explain how to tackle them.It is worth noting that Minskis state does not necessarily cover the distinction between problem solving and creativity. For instance, the discovery of a new algorithm, or a new combination of known algorithms, is a creative act. But well-defined problems in the sense of Minsky may lead to an opposition between algorithmic procedures and inferential procedures. As for the ill-defined problems, Reitman (1964) proposed a typology of half-dozen classes of problems comprising the transformation or generation of states, objects, or collections of objects. This taxonomy is not presented as a universal dickhead covering the whole field of creative situations, but simply as a general body structur e making it possible to collect the largest number possible of the creative situations. This plan of attack at systemization has mainly a descriptive value, but it is not unlikely that it could too be used for deducing hypotheses related to the behavior of rough-and-ready solutions.Reitmans work is based on the introduction of the sideline three concepts let A be an initial state or object (one which is expected to undergo transformation, modification, concomitanting, improvement, etc.) and let B be a final exam state or object (the solution to be obtained, elimination of problem). Let the symbol denote a process, program, or sequence of operations. It is past possible to represent a large number of problematic situations theatrical role from these three symbols by representing them by a general vector A, B, . Using these three concepts, six types of seedy defined problems can be distinguished. Type I. The initial and terminal states A and B are well specified the applicab le data are known and the requirements to be satisfied are explained precisely. The problem then consists in discovering the process that makes it possible to pass from the well-specified state A to a well-specified state B. For instance how can a given function be incorporated in a particular device? This type seems to cover a large class of problem situations.Type II. The terminal state B is less precisely specified than in the previous type, while A is left entirely at the delicacy of the experimenter. In fact, nothing is said most the state, object or assembly of objects from which to activate. The initial material is for the most part undetermined and admits only one constraint to aid in constituting the one possible solution. For instance what should be done to make traveling by train more pleasurable? Here, obviously, the current state represents some level of train travel comfort or pleasure, and this should be increased. But what exactly is to be achieved is an feed question.Type III. The initial state A consists in this compositors theme of an assembly of constituent parts each of which represents a concrete entity, while B represents a state or object to be achieved which is defined vaguely and is characterized by the fact that one or several of constituent parts of A need lost their separate identities after reaching B. Reitman cites as an example Napoleons cook who was charged with the task to make a good dish B to celebrate the victory at Marengo using only uncommitted ingredients A. This type is undoubtedly less general than the preceding ones. Type IV. A and B are presented as consisting of sub-components and are rather poorly defined. This type differs from type II in that in the latter case there are no restrictions imposed on search, several(predicate) analogous paths, and different associative paths the exploration of which can be relatively fruitful. In type IV it is not like that. The distinction between sub-components provid es constraints within which the problem solution has to take place. The research is, in other words, more strictly retiring than it is in the problems of type II.Type V. The initial state A is given by reference to a well defined object, the final state B is given by a set of similarities and dissimilarities with maintain to A. An example given by Reitman to illustrate this type is the future(a) manufacturer of some equipment encounters a estimable competition from -companys product. The kickoff-class honours degree company, , decides to change the design of the product in point to offer a set that is lower for a comparable quality than what its competitor asks. The task thus does not necessarily require an entirely new manufacturing process, because the added cost of the new process would not help to slash the price correspond to original estimates. Besides, the modification must be implemented fast because the competing product already is in the market while -companys sa les decrease with each passing day. The exigencies of this example illustrate the general type V product as a new device that must be functionally similar to the rare version but must be cheaper.Type VI. In this case, the final state B is well specified while the initial state A remains essentially empty, unstructured and largely undetermined. Characteristic examples cited by Reitman comprise to explain a new phenomenon, discover an alibi for a criminal deed, etc. This type differs from type II in the degree of clearcutness of the task. It is thus possible to distinguish among six categories of poorly defined problems resorting to almost imposing properties of their application. A research activity the results of which would show that these categories incite heuristically different behavior on the part of individuals and conferences still has to be accomplished. A relevant taxonomy establishes first some ordering, i.e. introduces some logic in the pertinent knowledge field. For this purpose the taxonomy distributes the phenomena or the entities considered according to their relevant characteristics, with no equivocalness involved. It appears that, in general, each taxonomy displays at least two different utility values First of all, the taxonomy presents a reference value that provides a framework for a certain subset of the universe. The information already available about the elements of this subset thus cease to be fragmented and simply accumulated in the continuation they are request with respect to one another. They can be integrated and complemented. Fragmented knowledge thus becomes systematic. This knowledge also represents an operational or heuristic value of the taxonomy in point. This value becomes apparent when the taxonomy leads to empirical research in order to validate its structure, its principle and its extent, or to uncover which variables of the taxonomy can be expected and unified. In the case of problem solution and creativity resea rch, one can try to establish some correspondence between certain types of tasks with certain behavioral phenomena, accompanimently those of psycholinguistic nature. The first problem differentiation might take into consideration the different objective properties of problemsThe problem is algorithmic it can be resolved using an logical sequence of specific operations. It allows, in this sense, a truly integrated division of labor, and is particularly suitable for groups with the centralized communication structure. The problem is inferential it can be visualized by means of trees, but the process of generalization of the trees cannot be decomposed into concatenated elementary operations. A homogeneous structure is, however, more appropriate. It can be seen that groups confront a specific situation adopt spontaneously the optimum organization to respond to this situation.Most authors, however, curb resorted to local dichotomies based on a multitude of imprecise criteria. The s traightforward problem typologies are the by-line Verbal and non-verbal tasks. Verbal tasks are supposed to mobilize grave cultural experience and imply the use of specific functions or hypothetic movers. Non-verbal tasks are symbolic, or in other ways dependent on non-verbal perceptions. Intellectual and manipulation-dependent tasks. In quick tasks, the principal operator is the brain. Manipulation-dependent problems require a coordination of the brain and muscular factors. Unique-solution and multiple-solutions tasks. indeed there are problems having a unique solution and problems having multiple solutions. The totality of distinctions pertinent to a particular solution domain cannot be generalized, because their underlying criteria are too coarse and do not allow more than just a very summary control of the situation. Shaws dimensional psychoanalysisIn an attempt to present mixed tones of group tasks in a systematic manner, Shaw (1963) collected a very eclecticist set of 104 statements mostly taken from experimental literature. The statements relate to both ill-defined and well-defined problems, to verbally and non-verbally hypothesize tasks, etc. These various statements were evaluated according to six a priori defined dimensions, which can be visualized as continuously varying intervals in which each task occupies a point. The six dimensions are characterized in the following manner Requirements of cooperation. This dimension permits to define the degree to which it is required that members of the group act in a twinned manner to complete the task successfully. It is thus a measure of dependence between the goal and the coordinated activity of the subjects. Verifiability of the decision. It is the degree to which the rightness or adequacy of the solution can be proved, either by reference to an authority, or by logical procedures (usually a mathematical proof), or by feedback (for instance by examining the consequences of the decision taken). Difficulty. This is defined by Shaw abstractly as the quantity of effort necessary for executing the task. Specifically, an indicator of difficulty can be the time required for solution, the number of errors made, etc. Clarity of purpose. This denotes the degree of precision with which the requirements of the task are presented to members of the group, and how the members perceive the requirements. Multiplicity of approaches to the goal. This dimension expresses the more or less great casualty to resolve the problem by various procedures. It is thus a matter of possible paths to the solution, i.e. of the number of alternating(a) solutions. Relationship between mental and motor requirements. A task that only requires the implementation of intellectual activities bequeath be among the strongest on this dimension. Conversely, tasks requiring only motor abilities will be among the weakest. A task requiring both intellectual and motor activities occupies an intermediate position be tween the two extremes.Intrinsic interest. Problems are not equally attractive, i.e. they do not mobilize the same motivation. This dimension is thus assigned the degree to which a particular task appears interesting to the subjects.Operational requirements. This dimension was introduced to evaluate the number of different kinds of operations, knowledge or abilities required for the outcome of the task. Familiarity within the population. Individuals might have had a previous experience of the task in point, either deport or by means of an analogous task. This dimension thus evaluates the relative rareness of a class of problems to a population.Multiplicity of solutions. It is the number of different correct solutions for the problem in point. That number can in general be evaluated exactly in a well-defined problem, but not if the estimate is very intuitive.This family of dimensions is intended to cover the maximum of traits occurring in every heuristic situation. Certain dimensi ons thus relate to formal properties of the task, for instance numbers 2, 5, or 10, while others, e.g. numbers 7 and 9 refer direct to the consequences of applying a particular semantics (second level of determination). Forty-nine referees, mostly graduate students of psychology, got the task of distributing the 104 sample tasks according to the 10 dimensions shown above. cardinal positions or degrees ordered by their magnitude were defined. The judgments were consistent, except for the dimension clarity of purpose.With these data, Shaw got two factor analyses that resulted in disclosing five significant factors for task analysisDifficulty, (factor I), the quantity of required effort displays a stodgy relationship to the number of operations, knowledge, and required abilities for solving the problem. The forth dimension, the clarity of purpose is equally an important aspect of difficulty the less clear the goal is, the more difficult is the task judged to be. Multiplicity of solut ions (factor II) is a entangled dimension that relates both to the number of acceptable solutions, to the diversity of paths leading to the solutions, and to the verifiability of a solution. Shaw thinks that the essential aspect is the number of solutions, while the other two merely are its consequences. While there are several solutions available, there also are several ways how to reach them. Proving the adequacy of each solution rigorously is but possible.Cooperation requirements (factor III) correspond exactly to the dimension of the same name. The degree of completing a task successfully implies a coordinated action on the part of group members.The relationship between intellectual requirements motor requirements (factor IV) constitutes no doubt an independent dimension. But it only shows a very weak correlation with the familiarity with the task within the population. Familiarity in the population is considered a separate dimension for the same reason. Nevertheless, it is n ecessary to point out that the familiarity seems relatively irrelevant, at least under the particular conditions of this work, where the majority of the tasks were somehow familiar to the subjects.Intrinsic interest (factor V), which corresponds to the garishness of motivation and the attraction exerted by the problem on the group members, too, is a dimension permeated with factor II.The first three of the six dimensions obtained finally seem to be both the most important and the least enigmatical ones. It is of course possible, as Shaw himself notes, that there are other dimensions, equally important, which continued research could bring forth. This first attempt will make it possible largely to control the principal components of the situation that comes into being as a problem to be solved is given to the subjects. This is the only condition under which accumulation of experimental data in this field can be transformed into scientific knowledge.Categorization by Roby and Lanzet taRoby and Lanzetta (1958) proposed a model intended to define and highlight the most important characteristics of a group task. For this purpose, they distinguish quartet sets of events occurring in the functioning of any group task systema. A set Tiof task input signal data. Here belong, for instance, the formulation of the problem to be solved and of the material it implies.b. A correlative set Giof initial activities of the group. These comprise, among others, waiting times, observation, data recording, communication associated with input variables, etc.c. A set Goof outputs produced by the group. In the creative process these comprise the traces of the heuristic process and solution suggestions.d. A set Toof environmental changes following from the groups activities.Roby and Lanzetta define three general types of properties Descriptive aspects, including the qualitative nature of various events, their number, and metric properties. Distribution of the events in the space or b y relation to other events. Functional aspects of events, i.e. their temporal occurrence as a function of foregoing events (sequential analysis).Each set of events, Ti, Gi, Go and To, can be studied and related to according to these three types of properties. In theory at least, it is possible to characterize any group task, and in particular any creative situation, using a double-entry table for 12 cases.This is the formal equipment of the descriptive system of group tasks proposed by Roby and Lanzetta. In an abstract analysis, however, this representation does not make the understanding of a truly mental meaning of a specific task possible. This remark led the authors to propose a complementary flavor of critical exigencies. This concept was introduced to cover the fact that each task requires certain behavior on the part of the group to be correctly executed, and calls for certain specific types of activities to be carried out. The implementation of these requirements should th us help to flash back the discontinuity mentioned between the structural properties of the task and the psychological or psychosocial phenomena generated by its handling. It is a different manner of tell apart the general and the particular. In a way, this is what was above called the second level of determination.Roby and Lanzettas intention was not to put forward a theory permitting to characterize the problems rigorously, but rather to present a table for the analysis of systems of group tasks. Their framework thus permits theoretically to classify any task parting from the values relevant to the task in the 12 boxes of the analysis table, but it does not make it possible to classify the types of tasks using a specific corpus of formal properties. Thus, Roby and Lanzetta did not forge a typological weapon, but, rather, a descriptive tool the general purpose of which is found precisely in the fact that the tool is deemed able to adapt itself to any task. The goal of their work was not to distribute the generalized variable task structure on an imperative scale, but rather to find a set of invariant characteristics that would make it possible to situate the various problems that appear in the life of a working group. Creative problems constitute in this context plainly merely a special case. It follows that the effort to determine the invariants of the analysis is probably of utmost importance and should complement any typological effort.Finally, an adequate taxonomy of poorly defined problems must comprise a meta-linguistic analysis of their formulation in the natural language it must be possible to establish a rigorous correspondence between a formal type and the multitude of its verbal expressions or concretizations and, in parallel, part from a specific semantics to reach a logical class it illustrates. Roqutte (1975) sketches the first attempt in this respect.Psychologists studying the ways people solve problem have adopted a reasonable strategy. Th ey study how people handle plain well-defined problems, and then apply theprocedure to the study of ill-defined tasks. In some instances shortcuts to solving an ill-defined problem are possible seek a well-defined version of the same problem and try to solve it, or find a new definition of the problem. Defininition or interpretation of the problem is as important in tackling well-defined tasks as it is in working with ill-defined tasks. Adversary and non-adversary problemsThis is another distinction between problems. An adversary problem is one in which the problem solver is competing with a thinking opponent, or a seemingly thinking opponent, like a chess-playing computer. In non-adversary problems the battle goes between a thinking problem solver and inert problem features. The latter may be symbolic or real, but they do not react to what the problem solver does, in order to defeat him, and they do not assist about what the human problem solver feels. Semantically rich and semanti cally impoverished problemsThis distinction seems to be increasing in importance. It was elaborated by Chi and his coworkers (1982). A problem is semantically rich for the problem solver who brings a significant relevant knowledge to the problem. The opposite is true of semantically impoverished problems. As an example, consider a problem given to two problem solvers. For the domain expert it is a semantically rich problem, for the novice it is a semantically impoverished problem. This distinction thus expresses the problem-solvers view of the problem situation, or Shaws familiarity within the population.Most puzzles, IQ-tests, and the like, are semantically impoverished for most subjects. Much of psychological research has been concentrate on solving semantically impoverished puzzles of the non-adversary type. The semantically rich non-adversary tasks are increasing in importance. This kinfolk comprises most tasks in computer programming and in physics.